从语用学的礼貌原则看英语中的委婉语

【Abstract】 Euphemism, cosmetic words, is not only a lingual phenomenon, but also a cultural and social phenomenon. It is like a mirror, reflecting the values, aesthetic conceptions and moral concepts in some extent. Euphemism plays an important part in social communication. It is like lube that avoids hurting the other party’s feeling. It oils the human relationship in communication and helps to save face of communicators. If people make full use of euphemism, it can accelerate and facilitate human communication. This paper elaborates on the features and social functions of euphemism. And it focuses on the relationships between its polite functions and Politeness Principle. This thesis is composed of six parts with Chapter Four and Five as its core: The first chapter focuses on the origin and definitions of euphemism. The second chapter discusses the features of euphemism in many ways. The third chapter talks about the social functions of euphemism from the angle of pragmatics. The fourth chapter forms the basis of the whole research by connecting euphemism with politeness and face-saving theory. The fifth chapter centers on euphemism and Politeness Principle. The last chapter concludes the whole thesis. Appropriate use of English euphemism can contribute a lot to successful message exchange.

【Key Words】 euphemism; social functions; Politeness Principle; face want

【摘 要】 委婉语是一种语言现象，一种文化现象，更是一种 社会 现象，在一定程度上， 它反映了社会的价值观，审美观和美德观。委婉语在社会交际中发挥着重要作用。日常的约定俗成的委婉语能起润滑剂的作用，通过委婉语，可以避免语言过于直露而给对方造成伤害。 它是语言使用中人们用来协调人际关系的有效润滑剂，是保全交际各方面子的重要手段。很多中外学者曾从不同的角度对 英语 委婉语进行了长期的 研究 并取得了可喜的成果。本文主要研讨了委婉语的特点，社会功用，并从语用学的角度 分析 了委婉语的社会功用，礼貌原则及面子 问题 。本文分为六个部分。第四和第五章是文章的重点。第一章主要探讨了委婉语的定义及起源。第二章从很多方面概括了委婉语的特点。第三章从语用的角度分析了委婉语的社会功用。第四章把委婉语与礼貌，面子保全论联系在一起，是本文的核心。第五章侧重于委婉语貌与礼貌原则的关系。本文的实践意义在于其分析结论有助于保证信息传递的顺利进行并促进人们的日常交流。

【关键词】 委婉语；社会功用；礼貌原则；面子

1. Introduction

There is a humor: Once a Paris tourist resided in UK. A landlady told him sadly that, “My husband has just passed to the other side.” The guest looked from the fence of the garden but saw no one, feeling confused. The landlady explained: “I mean he’s kicked the bucket.” The guest comforted her that: “I hope his foot will be better soon.” The landlady felt unintelligibly and said: “No, he wasn’t here, he snuffed it… you know.” The guest wondered and said: “But you’ve got electricity here.”

The reasons why the guest didn’t answer properly are that he didn’t realize that the landlady used euphemism, nor did he understand the “conversational implicature” of euphemism. What the landlady wanted to say is that her husband died.

The word euphemism comes from the Greek word “euphemos”, meaning "auspicious/good/fortunate speech" which in turn is derived from the Greek root--- words eu, "good/well" + pheme, "speech/speaking". The eupheme was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud (Such as taboo). The primary examples of taboo words requiring the use of a euphemism are the unspeakable names for a dEity, such as Persephone, Hecate, Nemesis or Yahweh. By speaking only words favorable to the gods or spirits, the speaker attempted to produce good fortune by remaining in good favor with them.

“Euphemism is defined in the New Edition of the Oxford Concise Dictionary (19

7

6) as ‘Substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one; expression thus substituted.’ IN Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (19

7

3) the definition reads, ‘Substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant.’”[1]

Euphemism is an important rhetorical means in English. It plays an important role in people’s daily communication. It is not only a cultural phenomenon, but also a social phenomenon. It just likes a mirror, which reflects some social and psychological phenomena.

2. Features of euphemism

2.1 Indirect and implicit

The most important character of euphemism is indirect and implicit. Euphemism always gives people hints in a roundabout way. We can infer the deeper meaning and intention from the context. For example, when someone is ill, we always say he is under the weather. If someone is mad, we say he is soft in mind.

2.2 Universality

Universality is something that is well-known and accepted by all of the people. Though euphemism is indirect and it doesn’t come straight to the point, people can easily infer its deeper implication. Some taboos connected with sex, death, or body functions are replaced by euphemisms. And the public has accepted this kind of use. For example, when we refer to death, we seldom say “die”. We use the expression “pass away”.

2.3 The feature of times

The changes of language depend on the need and changes of the society. And euphemism undergoes a process of metabolism. It bears a marked brand of times.

For example, “‘She is pregnant’ has many different euphemistic expressions in different eras.

(1) She has canceled all her social engagements. (18

5

6)

(2) She is in an interesting condition. (18

80)

(3) She is in a delicate condition. (18

9

5)

(4) She is knitting little bootees. (19

10)

(6) She is expecting. (19

3

5)But after 1960s, euphemisms of pregnant develop slowly because in modern times, people are not so implicit. They always mention things directly. And now, the phenomenon of pregnant is a cheerful thing. People will not be shy when mentioning it.

“The word ‘gay’, at first, it means happy and homosexuality. But as euphemism develops, the word ‘gay’ only reminds us the meaning of homosexuality. Thus, people don’t use the expression ‘We are young and gay.’”[3]

2.4 Regional feature

In euphemism, there are some regional differences. An Australian woman married to an American man. They spent thEIr honeymoon in America. And one day, the couple intended to go to a party together. But the bridegroom couldn’t find a suitable full dress. The bride took out a birthday suit that she gave him as a present few days ago and said: “Why not wear your birthday suit?” However , the whole family all astonished because in American English, “in one’s birthday suit” [4] is the euphemistic expression of “naked”. So this embarrassing situation resulted from the regional differences in euphemism.

There are two causes of regional differences.

First is a regional cultural difference. In different regions, the culture there will effect the development of euphemism. For example, “go to w.c.”. In the Balliol college of Oxford University, students call “‘go to toilet’ as ‘to visit Lady Periam’”[5] because the toilets of that college were built on the land donated by Lady Periam. Of course, Americans will not agree with this expression.

“Second is the difference of geographic environment. For example, in seaside, death would be connected with sea and tide. They may use ‘go with the tide’ to express die. On the contrary, in American west mountain areas, the euphemism for die is ‘(gone) over the range’ or ‘to cross the Great Divide’. These are the typical regional euphemisms.”[6]

2.5 Diversity of lingual region

Someone thinks that only upper and middle class use euphemism. But this conclusion is too absolute. We can analyze this in three aspects.

2.5.1 Differences of gender or age

“A study shows that female use more euphemisms than male do. There is a saying in English: ‘horse sweat; men perspire; young ladies glow.’ (Brock, 1973:

7

3) Women use obscure word to express the action of sweat. And the difference of gender and age usually influence the choice of the synonyms of euphemism. For instance, there are a variety of expressions about ‘go to toilet’. Men use the expression ‘to shoot a lion’. Adults may say ‘to go to w.c.’. And children say ‘to go to the pot’.”[7]

2.5.2 Difference of profession or identity

Euphemism changes while the profession and identity change. This is a synchrony variation. The word “die” can be used in many different ways. “In military, people use the expression ‘to lose number of one’s mess’. This expression orients from the mess system of UK navy. However, in the press, people often use the word ‘thirty’ because they usually mark ‘30’ in the end of a news article, which means ending.”[8]

2.5.3 Difference of style or context

Stylistically, the word “die” has hundreds of euphemisms. But in daily communication, people may use “to be gone” or “to be no more”. In obituary, people use “to pass away” or “to depart”. It also has some witty expressions, for instance, “to pop off” or “to kick the bucket”.

Euphemism is restricted by the context. For example, “On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. (F. Engels, Speech at the Graveside of Karl Marx)” [9] This example involves the passing away of a great man. And the phrase “ceased to think” echoes “thinker”. This euphemism produces a good effect.

3. Pragmatic functions of euphemism

3.1 Taboo function

“Taboo is the main psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is the avoidance of the unpleasant, inelegant things. A famous sociolinguist Mr. Chen Yuan once said: ‘Generally speaking, the coming into being of euphemism all begins from taboo.’ From the origin of euphemism, we can see that taboo is the first function of euphemism. Euphemism has been using for a long time, and it is closely related to taboo. In fact, euphemism dates back to the language taboo in the early period of human civilization. When people try to avoid and give up taboo words, they have to find another word to replace this vacancy at the same time. Hence, people created euphemism.” [10]

There are some taboo things, such as birth, death, funeral, sex, nakedness, defecation, and urinate. If they are expressed directly, they are called taboo words and the feelings they give us are vulgar, crude and harsh, whereas if they are expressed indirectly, they are called euphemism, and the impressions they made on us are elegant, implicit and polite. The evading function of euphemism also works today. Some taboo notions cannot be easily removed from people’s mind. 3.2 Polite function

Polite function of euphemism is to avoid inelegant things and make people feel pleasant. As Joanna Channell put in her book Vague Language “Vagueness is used as one way of adhering to the politeness rules for a particular culture, and of not threatening face.” [13] It means that in real life, when people meet with some unpleasant things or behaviors, they usually choose some vague expressions to avoid making bold or hurting other’s feeling----to use euphemism.

It is harsh to say someone is deaf, so people use “auditory-impaired” to replace it. They sound more gracefully. “When English-speakers refer to the appearance, they don’t use the word ‘ugly’ or ‘awful’, which has strong derogatory sense. Instead, they use the word ‘plain-looking’ or ‘not pretty’.” [14] Westerners are sensitive to age. In their opinion, “old” equals to “useless” in some extent. In order not to hurt the feeling and self-esteem of the old, “old men” are replaced by “senior citizens” or “seasoned men”. For the word “senior” has many meanings. Except “older”, it also means higher in rank or authority. And the word “seasoned” means experienced. “Following are some euphemisms about profession.” [15]

Harsh expression euphemism

butcher Meat technologist

Chimney worker Chimney consultant

fireman Fire fighter

Garbage man Sanitation engineer

hairdresser Hair stylist

housekeeper Household executive

Press-agent Public relation counselor

Prison guard Correctional officer

3.3 Covering up function

In Vagueness Language, Channell stated covering up function as deliberately withholding information. What is so called “cover up” means “not giving information which the speaker possesses and which could be appropriate in the situation.” [16]

Western political life gives birth to euphemism. Some politicians and news medias have made good use of the vagueness of euphemism to cover up the facts of some events for the purpose of making the politics, economy, and military more steady.

Concealing the dark side of society is to alleviate the social contradictions caused by sex, violence, poverty, unemployment, and crime. There are some euphemisms about social phenomena. “Venereal disease” has been beautified as “social disease”. “Rape”, a kind of crime, is mentioned casually as “interfere with”; “prostitution became a high-sounding profession------‘the oldest profession in the world’.” [17] In politicians’ view, violence is a kind of action and dismissal is also “lay off”. People don’t need to be surprised at these phenomena.

In western countries, politicians create some political euphemisms to serve their political goals. They try to conceal the facts as to ease the tense relations between other countries and reassure and pacify public’s anti-war emotions. For example, In Vietnam War, Gulf war, or Iraqi war, a number of euphemisms emerged to gloss over the horror and cruelty of war and contemptible diplomatic means.

“Following is a chart about military euphemisms.” [18]

Horrific expression Euphemism

air strike air option

bombing and blasting softening up the resistance

civilian casualties collateral damage

defense crushed defense neutralized

ground war ground operation

invasion pre-emptive action

missile Vehicle

nuclear bomb nuclear device

retreat strategic withdrawal

suicidal attack one-way mission

warhead payload

There are also some euphemisms about economy. “People use ‘depression’ instead of ‘economic crises’. The word ‘Striking’ has been beautified as ‘industrial action’.” [19] and when people mentioned slum, they often use “substandard housing” to replace it.

“The euphemisms here are in the true sense of the word “false.” They are used to cover up the true nature of events, deceiving the public with nice-sounding and pseudo technical words.” [20]

3.4 Inducing function

Sometimes, people use euphemism to make thEir statement more persuasive. Thus the cosmetic words have a special communicative function, which is called inducing function. As Channell has analyzed in the discussion of the communicative functions of vague language that “A specific setting where speakers may withhold information which they know is where they feel that they can be more persuasive by doing so.” [21]

Euphemism has been widely applied in advertisement and sales promotion activities. Some airline companies divided the grades of passenger compartments into four ranks. The y used “deluxe” or “premium class” to replace “first class”. And the “second class” is transformed into “first class”. The “third class” is revised as “business class” or “tourist class”. They sound more pleasing.

The rooms of hotel are also compartmentalized in the same way. They can be divided as first class, standard and private. Those words are sweet sounding and have nothing to do with customers’ self-esteem. Also, “‘antiques’ is the substitution of ‘second-hand furniture’.” [22] In the merchants’ eye, the former will make the price higher. People often use “compact car” to replace “small car”. Though thEIr meanings are the same, “small” will be associated with an image of cheap and bad while “compact” emphasizes the image of artistic, delicate, and terse.

Those euphemisms desalinate the unpleasant feeling that the former concepts give us and intensify a feeling of more reliable and elegant. As a result, those products will be identified with the consumers and achieved the promotion goal. “From the pragmatic view, the achieving of inducing function is caused by the glorification of the intrinsic meaning.” [23]

3.5 Tactical function

If a same meaning is expressed in many different ways, their effects are entirely different. This is what we called the art of speaking. If we apply this strategy to our daily life, our life will be more colorful.

For example, on the plane, there are some bags that can be used by the passengers to shoot his cookies. People don’t print the words “vomit bag” on the surface of the bag. Instead, they use the words “for motion discomfort”. [24] And the result proved that the vomit phenomenon has reduced. Because compared with the former words, the word “for motion discomfort” prevents the passengers from vomiting when in a state of airsickness. This is the tactical function of euphemism.

By contrary, if we use euphemism inappropriately, the result would be worse. Try to compare the following two statements:

(9) I am an old cripple, drawing an old-age pension, working hard to raise vast quantities of vegetables on an allotment and well aware that, one of these days, I shall die.

(10) If, however, I listen to the voice of officialdom, it turns out that I am a disadvantaged senior citizen, registered as disabled, drawing a retirement pension, renting a leisure garden and, presumably, immortal because I shall never die--- I shall merely pass away.

We can see that in the first statement, the author talks directly about his life status. The second statement is that the government officials make a survey of the hardship of citizens. They try to cover the facts by using euphemisms.

3.6 Humor function

Jocular euphemism has been used to help people face the fact more easily. For example, people use “push up daisies” to take place of “be buried” because the former words can reduce people’s horror towards death. And “be sent into prison” is replaced by “live at government’s expense”. This expression is witty. Another example, “after three days in Japan, the spinal column becomes extraordinarily flexible.” Its implicature is that in Japan, people are very polite. They usually bow many times a day to greet someone.

4. Euphemism and politeness

4.1 Euphemism and interpersonal communication

Euphemism has been widely used in the real human communication. It can be regarded as a kind of polite terms .In primitive and traditional society, taboo and euphemism are the two sides of a coin. They are used for social control and religious control. And in modern English, there are a number of words connected with holy, sex, body organ and body function. So when people’s topic refers to those, they have to find euphemisms to replace them. They often use some vague language to avoid mentioning them directly.

4.2 Politeness and face-threatening theory

The main function of euphemism is polite function. Thus, the main character of euphemism is polite. Politeness plays an important role in human communication. It oils human relationships. So euphemism accords with politeness will accelerate human communication.

4.2.1 The definition and features of politeness

“We view politeness as one of the major social constrains on human interaction which regulates participants’ communicative behavior by constantly reminding them to take into consideration the feelings of the others. It is necessary to consider their feelings so as to establish levels of mutual comfort and promote rapport, which in turn accelerate and facilitate human communication.” [25] The final goal of politeness is to make all of the parties relaxed and comfortable with one another.

There are two kinds of politeness: one is negative politeness; the other is positive politeness. Negative politeness is to make a less infringing request, such as "If you don't mind..." or "If it isn't too much trouble..." or respects a person's right to act freely. In other words, it’s deference. Positive politeness is to seek to establish a positive relationship between parties and respects a person's need to be liked and understood.

4.2.2 Face-threatening theory

Face is defined as an individual’s self-esteem. “Based on the face notion of Goffman that “face” is a sacred thing for every human being, an essential factor communicators have to pay attention to, and that face wants are reciprocal (if one wants his face cared for, he should care for other people’s face).” [26] According to Brown and Levinson, nearly all speech acts are face-threatening acts. There are two kinds of face: one is Positive Face; the other is Negative Face.

“Positive Face refers to our need to be accepted and liked by others and our need to feel that our social group shares common goals. Positive Politeness orients to preserving the positive face of other people. When we use positive politeness we use speech strategies that emphasize our solidarity with the hearer, such as information pronunciation, shared dialect or slang expressions, nicknames, more frequent reference to speaker and hearer as “we”, and requests which are less indirect.

Negative Face refers to our right to independence of action and our need not to be imposed on by others. Negative Politeness orients to preserving the negative face of other people. This is much more likely if there is a social distance between the speaker and the hearer. When we use negative politeness, we use speech strategies that emphasize our deference for the hearer. Nicknames, slang and informal pronunciation tend to be avoided and requests tend to be more indirect and impersonal, often involving could you… or could I ask you to… or even referring to the hearer in the third person.” [27]

4.2.3 The relationship between politeness and face want

Face refers to our public self-image. Politeness involves us showing an awareness of other people’s face want. In our interpersonal communication, we should pay attention to other’s face want. In the field of education, teacher has to deal with the relations with the students. There are some euphemisms about education. For example, if a student is lazy, we don’t call him “lazy student”. Instead, we call him “underachiever”. If a student cheats in class, we regard it that he depends on others to do his work. “And if a student is quarter-witted and he usually gets a low mark in the exams, we don’t call him stupid. So when the teacher talks with the child’s parents, the teacher would say: ‘Your child is a bit slow for his age.’” [28] He says the fact in a roundabout way so it will not hurt the parents’ and the child’s self-esteem. It is a face-saving strategy.

In short, in people’s daily communication, they have to be polite to save each other’s face and make their relations more harmoniously. They can achieve this goal by using euphemisms because they are sweet-sounding. And this is the polite function of euphemism.

5. Euphemism and Politeness Principle

From the above, we know that euphemism has something to do with politeness. We can associate politeness with Politeness Principle.

5.1 Leech’s politeness principle

(1)Tact Maxim (in impositives and commissives)

a. Minimize cost to other;

b. Maximize benefit to other.

Some examples : a、If you keep this diet, you’ll be on the heavy side.

(c.f.: If you keep on eating too much, you’ll become very fat.)

b、Thank you for your kind hospitality.

(c.f.: Thank you for your delicious food.)

(2)Generosity Maxim (in impositives and commissives)

a. Minimize benefit to self;

b. Maximize cost to self.

Some examples: a、Would you do me a favor?

(c.f.: Can you help me?)

b、I shall never cease to feel grateful for your favors.

(c.f.: I shall never cease to feel grateful for your help.)

(3)Approbation Maxim (in expressives and assertives)

a. Minimize dispraise of other;

b. Maximize praise of other.

Some examples: a、He is a senior citizen now.

(c.f.: He is an old man now.)

b、Cao Yu is a Shakespeare of China.

(c.f.: Cao Yu is the best playwright of China.)

(4)Modesty Maxim (in expressives and assertives)

a. Minimize praise of self;

b. Maximize dispraise of self.

Some examples: a、This is a token of my regard for you.

(c.f.: This is a present for you.)

b、Your praise is the highest honor for me.

(c.f.: Thank you for your praise.)

(5)Agreement Maxim (in assertives)

a. Minimize disagreement between self and other;

b. Maximize agreement between self and other.

Some examples: a、I couldn’t share the same idea with you.

(c.f.: I don’t agree with you.)

b、If you were in my position, you would do the same.

(c.f.: I have to do so.)

(6)Sympathy Maxim (in assertives)

a. Minimize antipathy between self and other;

b. Maximize sympathy between self and other.” [29]

Some examples: a、I am sorry to hear that your father rested in Abraham’s arms.

(c.f.: I am sorry to hear that your father is dead.)

b、If I were you, I would have taken a route of egress as you did.

(c.f.: If I had been in your position, I would have been defeated by the mighty enemy, too.)

Leech ties politeness to the relationship between both parties and the language used. He claims that “static” feature, such as social distance, interact with “dynamic” features, such as the kind of illocutionary demand the speaker is making on the maker, to produce an appropriate degree of politeness. The core of his politeness is to minimize the expression of impolite benefits.

5.2 Polite function and Politeness Principle

Polite function is the basic social function of euphemism. And Politeness Principle shows this function. Euphemism always abides by the Politeness Principle. In such a case, euphemism can make people’s relationship more harmonious. But there are also some exceptions. Euphemisms of military do not accord with Politeness principle most of the time.

5.3 Politeness Principle and the cooperative Principle

The Politeness Principle shows equal and friendly relationships between people in the society. It demands that in communication, the speaker should cooperate with the hearer. The two parties use euphemisms to replace harsh words because it can meet the psychological needs of face-want. And the language used by the two parties should be appropriate. Generally speaking, the appropriateness of the speech is closely related with euphemism. However , “The Maxim of Relevance” of Grice’s “Cooperative Principle” limits the choice of euphemism. He suggests that in communication, the reply of the hearer should be closely related to the speech of the speaker. In the process of communication, the euphemisms used just now should be connected with the primary language symbols. In such case, it will provide a clue to the hearer so that he can understand the connotation of the speech. This principle provides a lot of standard conversational implicatures. In a word, the two parties can understand the intention of each other from the context.

(1

1) A: How is John doing with his study at school?

B: He’s a machine.

Here, from the literal meaning of B's reply, he seems haven’t answer A’s question. But at least, his answer violates Quality Maxim and Relation Maxim. We know that though B’s answer doesn’t cooperate with A’s question, we can still understand B’s meaning by the deeper implication of his speech. First, we should suppose that this conversation tally with Cooperative Principle. Second, we can guess the implication between machine and study. At last, we can infer that John is hard-working. Thus, if the utterance is not relevant with each other, we can reason. “Unlike presuppositions and entailments, implicatures are inferences that cannot be made from isolated utterances. They are dependent on the context of the utterance and the shared knowledge between the speaker and the hearer.” [30]

6. Conclusion

Euphemism is an appropriate language form created by people to achieve an ideal communicative effect in the social interactions. “Enrighr D.J. stated that ‘If euphemism doesn’t exist, the movement of the world will stop and it will be filled with hatred.’” [31] Nearly no one can live without euphemism.

Euphemism is not only a social phenomenon, but also a lingual phenomenon. The formation of euphemism is the result of social factors and psychological factors. From the day of its birth, there are countless ties between euphemism and the social culture. Euphemism develops while the society develops. Euphemism is a mirror. We can learn the values and moral concepts of the society. Euphemism that accords with Politeness Principle oils human communication because polite function is the main function of Politeness principle. If we make good use of this language form, it will accelerate and facilitate human communication. People’s interpersonal relations will be more harmonious. We can make full use of euphemism and make our life more colorful.

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