英文論文常用句型-背景

courtesy of the University of Western
Ontario

Other Views of
Managerial Work

Rosemary Stewart examined the "demands,"
"constraints," and "choices“of a managers
job.

John Kotter's studies of general managers
and his finding of certain "demands" or
regularities in all general managers' jobs that
resemble traditional management functions.
Note, also, the factors that cause these to
vary.

Other Views of
Managerial Work

Fred Luthans, Richard
Hodgetts, and Stuart
Rosenkrantz studied 44
managers, recording
activities and behaviors.

In Real Managers they
note four categories:
routine communication,
traditional management,
networking, and human
resource management.
Richard M. Hodgetts

The Search for Excellence

Thomas Peters and Robert Waterman identified
eight attributes of corporate excellence in their
best selling book, In Search of Excellence.

Peters and Waterman relied solely on financial
measures in determining success.

Management Education
Revisited

Harold Koontz revisited the management theory
jungle and expanded it from 6 to 11
approaches.

Called for leading managers to narrow the gap
between professional practice and business
schools.

Lyman Porter and Lawrence McKibbin surveyed
management education for the AACSB.

Called for professors to be more broadly educated
and possess relevant work experience.

Peter Drucker (1909 –
Guru of Management Practice

Drucker achieved prominence through his
writings and consulting.

He asks:

What is our business?

Who I the customer?

What does the customer buy?

What does the customer consider value?

What will our business be?

And what should it be?
Peter F. Drucker

Peter Drucker (1909 –
Guru of Management Practice

Importance on Innovation

Key areas for setting objectives and evaluating
results

Fortune magazine publishes a survey of the most
“admired” corporations. The areas that Fortune
uses bear a strong resemblance to Drucker’s key
areas.

Management by Objectives

Peter Drucker (1909 –
Guru of Management Practice

Drucker’s focus on managerial practice asks the
lingering question: “Can our academic research
have rigor and also be relevant to the practice of
management?”

From Business Policy to
Strategic Management

Markets and hierarchy

Echoing the work of earlier economists such as
Say and Marshall, who saw management as a
factor of production and able to provide
competitive advantage, Ronald Coase, in a 1937
article, asked why have business firms?

Coase saw the firm as an alternative to the
market with certain advantages in allocating
resources.

From Business Policy to
Strategic Management

Markets and hierarchy

Echoing the work of earlier economists such as Say
and Marshall, who saw management as a factor of
production and able to provide competitive
advantage, Ronald Coase, in a 1937 article, asked
why have business firms?

Coase saw the firm as an alternative to the market
with certain advantages in allocating resources.
Ronald Coase

From Business Policy to
Strategic Management

Oliver Williamson (1932-) and the “new
institutional economics” saw the
hierarchy of the firm being typically more
efficient than markets because firms
could internalize transaction costs
(remember Commons?) and provide
monitoring mechanisms to thwart,
hopefully, opportunism.
Oliver Williamson

From Business Policy to
Strategic Management

Governance and Agency Issues

If the firm, through management, is more efficient
than the market, then the actions of those who govern
the firm becomes more significant.

A number of individuals, such as Michael Jensen,
criticize the behavior of those in the managerial
hierarchy who serve their own interests rather than
those of their shareholders.

The separation of ownership and control is an
evergreen issue to catch the conscience that lies
within.

From Business Policy to
Strategic Management

Agency theory,

assuming it is a theory, creates situations that lead to
opportunistic behavior.

Assumes that everyone will engage in opportunistic
behavior—leading to contracts and other means of
monitoring behavior.

Involves issues of trust, fidelity, and other appropriate
behaviors in contrast to the assumptions of agency
theory.

How do our assumptions about the behavior of others
influence how we manage?

Management as an Integrating
and Innovative Task

Henri Fayol was a strategist. (See quote in Wren
text.)

Arch Shaw (1876-1962) pioneered the study of
business policy as a academic subject at
Northwestern University.
Henri Fayol

Management as an Integrating
and Innovative Task

There is a rich heritage of “strategy” in Barnard,
Newman, Drucker, and Chandler.

Strategic management has emerged as the “new”
view of business policy and long range planning.
Alfred D. Chandler,
Courtesy of Harvard Business School

From Business Policy to
Strategic Management

Strategy and Views of the Firm

Michael Porter (and others) in
industrial/organizational economics made
key contributions to strategy.

Porter’s “five forces” framework, value
chain and “generic” strategies.
Michael E. Porter,
Courtesy of Harvard Business School

From Business Policy to
Strategic Management

Strategy and Views of the Firm

Edith Penrose (1914-1996)asked why firms differed in
performance, providing seminal insights for the resource
based and the knowledge based views of the firm.

SWOT— In 1960s HBS policy group began use of the
term.

Important developments in “core competencies” and
“distinctive competencies” followed through the work of
Wernerfelt, Rumelt, Barney, Prahalad, and Hamel.

From Business Policy to
Strategic Management

Strategic Leadership and Evolutionary
Dynamics

“Evolutionary economics”—how to create and gain
competitive advantages through innovation.

Organizational learning to “unbound” rationality and
move to new and innovative forms of competitive
advantage.

Strategic leadership—the bridge to general
management theory.

Summary

General management theory reawakened as
organizations grew more complex and needed
more broadly educated general managers.

Drucker and others emphasized the need to
improve the practice of management.

General management also grew through a
resurgence in industrial/organizational
economics.

Business policy evolved to strategic
management.

Chapter Twenty
Organizational Behavior
and Theory

Organizational Behavior
and Theory

People and Organizations

Organizations and People

Gordon & Howell Report 1959

Triggered more interest in the behavioral and
social sciences

The behavioral/social scientists were trained
differently in research methods and drew on a
different body of literature.

Human relations thought was modified by these
behavioral scientists, providing for a transition
from human relations to organizational behavior.

Keith Davis (1918-2002)
Mr. Human Relations

Acts as a transition point for human relations
and organizational behavior.

Defined human relations as “the integration of
people into a work situation in a way that
motivates them to work together productively,
cooperatively, and with economic,
psychological, and social satisfaction.”

Modern Human Relations – Two Facets

Organizational behavior

Human relations

Chris Argyris (1923 -

Influenced by the humanist approach of
Abraham Maslow and the socio-technical
process of E. Wight Bakke.

Indicated his feelings about how organizations
neglected human needs.
Chris Argyris courtesy
of the University of Western Ontario

Chris Argyris –
Personality vs. Organization

Certain organizational practices, such as the division
of labor, interfered with the development of health
human personalities.

These practices promoted immature, not mature
behavior.

In an attempt to self-actualize, individuals ran into the
obstacles posed by formal organizations.

The result was defensive behaviors, with
management reacting by becoming more autocratic
or by turning to sugar-coated human relations.

Chris Argyris

Douglas McGregor (1906-
1964)

Taught psychology at MIT.

At Antioch College, McGregor found that his
classroom teaching of human relations did not
always work in practice.

From these experiences, his ideas evolve and
lead him to recognize the influence of
assumptions we make about people and our
managerial style.
Douglas McGregor
Courtesy of University of Western Ontario

Theory X

Management is responsible for organizing the elements of
productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment,
people – in the interest of economic ends.

With respect to people, this is a process of directing their
efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying
their behavior to fit the needs of the organization.

Without this active intervention by management, people
would be passive – even resistant – to organizational
needs. They must, therefore, be persuaded, rewarded,
punished, controlled – their activities must be directed.
This is management’s task -- in managing subordinate
managers or workers. We often sum it up by saying that
management consists of getting things done through other
people.

Theory X (continued)

Behind this conventional theory there are several
additional beliefs – less explicit, but widespread:

The average man is by nature indolent – he works as
little as possible.

He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be
led.

He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to
organizational needs.

He is by nature resistant to change.

He is gullible, not very bright – the ready dupe of the
charlatan and the demagogue.

Theory Y

Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive
enterprise – money, materials, equipment, people – in the interest of
economic ends.

People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs.
They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.

The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming
responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational
goals are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It
is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to
recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.

The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions
and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals
best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.


Work is inherently distasteful to
most people.

Most people are not ambitious,
have little desire for
responsibility, and prefer to be
directed.

Most people have little capacity
for creativity in solving
organizational problems.

Motivation occurs only at the
physiological and safety levels.

Most people must be closely
controlled and often coerced to
achieve organizational
objectives.

Work is as natural as play, if the
conditions are favorable.

Self-control is often indispensable
in achieving organizational goals.

The capacity for creativity in
solving organizational problems is
widely distributed in the
population.

Motivation occurs at the social,
esteem, and self-actualization
levels, as well as physiological
and security levels.

People can be self-directed and
creative at work if properly
motivated.
Theory X Theory Y

Personnel/Human Resource
Management

Human Resource Management did not
always receive the attention it deserved. An
example is the Gordon and Howell’s 1959
assessment of personnel management.

John R. commons was the first to use the
phrase “human resource.”

E. Wight Bakke appears to be the first person
to cast personnel in a human resources
framework.

Personnel/Human Resource
Management

Wendell French was the first to add human
resources to a personnel management text.

The contributions of George Strauss, Leonard
Sayles, and Thomas Kochan have enriched
human resource management literature by
noting it is complementary to industrial
relations.

Frederick Herzberg
(1923-2000)

His research emphasized job
enrichment (depth) rather than job
enlargement

Job context (hygiene factors) –
needed to be optimal to prevent
job dissatisfaction. These factors
(according to Herzberg) did not
motivate.

Job content (motivators) – factors
that did lead to motivation

Money (according to Herzberg)
could motivate if it was seen as a
reward for accomplishment; but if
money was given without regard
for merit, then it was a hygiene
factor.
Frederick Herzberg
Policies and Administration
Supervision
Working Conditions
Interpersonal Relations
Money, Status, Security
Achievement
Recognition for Accomplishment
Challenging Work
Increased Responsibility
Growth and Development
HYGIENE FACTORS
ENVIRONMENT
MOTIVATORS
WHAT THEY DO
Motivation and Hygiene Factors
THE JOB ITSELF
AND THE
MOTIVATOR
FACTORS
RESPONSIBILITY
ACHIEVEMENT
WORK ITSELF RECOGNITION
GROWTH
ADVANCEMENT
THE JOB SURROUNDINGS
AND THE
HYGIENE FACTORS
SUPERVISION
BENEFITS
INTER-
PERSONAL
RELATION-
SHIPS
SECURITY
SALARY
STATUS
COMPANY
POLICY AND
ADMINIS-
TRATION
WORKING
CONDITIONS
Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Work Design

Richard Hackman, Edward Lawler, and Greg
Oldham’s work extended Herzberg’s notions
by adding a situational (it depends…)
dimension

Key job characteristics

Depending on an individual’s “growth-need
strength,” these characteristics could be amplified
to make the job more me aningful.

Motivation: Expectancy
Theory Victor Vroom

The expectancy theory of Victor Vroom helps
explain the choosing process among individuals
in terms of the value (valence) of the reward
and the expectancy of receiving the reward.